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Selenium and its Relationship to Cancer P. D. Whanger Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology Oregon State University Corvallis, OR 97331 The statements "Selenium may reduce the risk of certain cancers" and "Selenium may produce anticarcinogenic effects in the body" are supported by scientific evidence. There is significant scientific agreement that daily supplementation with selenium may reduce the risk of some cancers and that selenium is anticarcinogenic. This report will examine epidemiological studies, human clinical trials, animal studies, and in vitro studies on selenium's relationship to cancer. It will examine the efficacy of different forms of selenium and of different levels of selenium supplementation. V. Human Trials. In spite of advances in diagnosis and treatment, cancer continues to be a major health burden. With the fear associated with diagnosis of cancer, it is not surprising that the public may have considerable interest in easily implemented measures, such as dietary modification or use of vitamin and trace element supplementation for cancer prevention. Promising results have been obtained, however, to indicate that selenium supplementation is effective in reduction of cancer in humans. There have been six trials conducted on the effects of selenium supplementation on the incidence of cancer or biomarkers in humans and all of them have shown positive effects of selenium. Three of these were conducted in China and one each in India, Italy and in the United States. The first human intervention trial to prevent cancer with selenium in humans was conducted in Qidong, a region north of Shanghai, China, with a high incidence of primary liver cancer (PLC). Subjects were given table salt fortified with 15 ppm selenium as sodium selenite which provided about 30 to 50 micrograms selenium daily for eight years (Yu et al, 1991, 1997). This resulted in a drop of the PLC incidence to almost one-half (27.2 per 100,000 populations versus 50.4 per 100,000 populations consuming ordinary salt). Upon withdrawal of selenium from the treated group, the PLC incidence began to rise. In a separate study, risk populations receiving selenite salt as a source of selenium also showed a significant reduction in the incidence rate of viral infectious hepatitis, a major predisposing PLC risk factor in this region (Yu et al, 1989). The selenium fortified salt was distributed to the general population of 20,800 persons. Six neighboring townships served as controls and were given normal table salt. In a second trial, members of families at risk of PLC were either given 200 micrograms selenium daily in the form of high-selenium yeast or a placebo (Yu et al, 1997). During the 2-year study period, 1.26% of the controls developed PLC versus 0.69% in those given selenium enriched yeast. Furthermore, of 226 Hepatitis B surface antigen carriers, seven of 113 subjects in the placebo group developed PLC during four years as opposed to no cases in those taking selenium enriched yeast. A third human trial on the effects of selenium on cancer was also conducted in China with 3,698 subjects. This intervention trial was conducted from 1984 to 1991 in Linxian, China, a rural county in Henan Province, where the mortalities from esophageal cancer are among the highest in the world (Blot et al, 1993). The results indicated that a treatment containing selenium (50 micrograms Se/day as Se enriched yeast plus vitamin E and $-carotene) produced a modest protective effect against esophageal and stomach cancer mortality among subjects in the general population (Li et al, 1993; Taylor et al, 1994; Blot et al, 1995). Probably the reason for only a modest reduction of cancer by selenium is because only 50 micrograms were given daily in contrast to other studies where up to 200 micrograms were given per day. In the study conducted in India, 298 subjects were used. One-half of the subjects with precancerous lesions in the oral cavity were supplemented with a mixture of four nutrients [vitamin A, riboflavin, zinc and selenium (100 micrograms daily for six months and 50 micrograms the final six months as selenium enriched yeast)] and compared to controls (also 149 patients) receiving placebos (Prasad et al, 1995). The frequency of micronuclei and DNA adducts were significantly reduced in the supplemented groups at the end of the one year study. The adducts decreased by 95% in subjects taking selenium with all categories of lesions and by 72% in subjects without lesions. No such effects were noted in the placebo group. In the Italian study subjects were given a mixture called "Bio-selenium" which provided 200 micrograms selenium as L-selenomethionine daily plus zinc and vitamins A, C and E for five years, and compared to those taking a placebo (Bonelli et al, 1998). A total of 304 patients participated in this study and the incidence of metachronous adenomas of the large bowel evaluated. Patients with prior resected adenomatous polyps were used in a randomized trial and new adenomatous polyps were noted. The observed incidence of metachronous adenomas was 5.6% in the group given the "Bio-selenium" mixture versus 11% in the placebo group. One of the most exciting clinical trials on selenium and cancer in humans was conducted in the United States. A simple experimental design in a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial with 1312 older Americans with histories of basal and/or squamous cell carcinomas of the skin were used (Clark et al, 1996, 1998). The use of a daily oral supplement of selenium enriched yeast (200 µg Se/day) did not affect the risk of recurrent skin cancers. However, supplementation with selenium as selenium enriched yeast reduced the incidence of lung, colon and prostate cancers respectively by 46, 58 and 64%. Restricting the analysis to the 843 patients with initially normal levels of prostate specific antigen, only four cases were diagnosed with cancer in the selenium treated group but 16 cases were diagnosed in the placebo group after a 2-year treatment lag (Clark et al, 1998). Even though Clark et al (1996) did not observe any effect of selenium on skin cancer in their study, the results strongly indicated that other types of skin disorders may be reduced by selenium. The author is aware of at least three human trials [two in the United States (University of Arizona; and the SELECT trial at NCI; Klein et al, 2001), and one in Europe (PRECISE, Rayman, 2000)] presently under way to confirm the results of this American investigation. Finally, in another trial, topical application of Semet was effective in protecting against acute ultraviolet irradiation damage to skin of humans (Burke et al, 1992a). Maximal protection appeared to be attained at concentrations between 0.02% and 0.05%.[1][1] VI. Selenium and tumors in small animals. There have been more than 100 trials conducted with small animals on the relationship of tumor incidences to selenium status (Combs and Combs, 1986b; Combs and Gray, 1998). Interestingly, the first evidence that selenium may counteract tumors was presented in 1949 where the addition of selenium to a diet for rats significantly reduced tumors caused by ingestion of an azo dye (Clayton and Bauman, 1949). These results were ignored even by these researchers because of the negative image selenium held at that time. The first evidence of the essentiality of selenium was presented in 1957 (Schwarz and Foltz, 1957), at which time selenium was considered a carcinogenic element. A number of reviews on selenium and carcinogensis in animals have been presented which include those by Milner (1985), Ip and Medina (1987) Medina and Morrison (1988) and Whanger (1992). The chemical carcinogens used to produce tumors in liver, mammary gland, colon, skin, lungs, trachea, pancreas and stomach have been summarized (Whanger, 1992). Two thirds of the animal studies showed significant reductions by selenium in the tumor incidence with one-half showing reductions of 50% or more (Combs and Gray, 1998). In the majority of those studies selenium as selenite was used but that may not have been the most effective form (as noted later) to use. Those results with animals and the epidemiological surveys showing a positive relationship between selenium and cancer incidence were the main motivating factors for conducting human trials.
___________________________ Phil D. Whanger Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology Oregon State University A copy of my curriculum vitae is attached REFERENCES FOR REPORT ON SELENIUM AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO CANCER American Cancer Society (2000) Cancer facts & figures. Atlanta, GA. Beilstein, M. A. and P. D. Whanger (1986) Chemical forms of selenium in rat tissues after administration of selenite or selenomethionine. J. Nutr. 116: 1711-1719. Beilstein, M. A. and P. D. Whanger (1988) Glutathione peroxidase activity and chemical forms of selenium in tissues of rats given selenite or selenomethionine. J. Inorgan. Biochem. 33: 31-46. Beilstein, M. A., P. D. Whanger and G. Q. Yang (1991) Chemical forms of selenium in corn and rice grown in a high selenium area of China. Biomedical Environ. Sci. 4: 392-398. Blot, W. J., J. Y. Li, P. R. Taylor, W. Guo, S. Dawsey et al (1993) Nutrition intervention trials in Linxian, China: Supplementation with specific vitamin/mineral combinations, cancer incidence, and disease-specific mortality in the general population. J. Nat. Cancer Inst. 85: 1483-1490. Blot, W. J., J-Y Li, P. R. Taylor, W. Guo, S. M. Dawsey and B. Li (1995) The Linxian trials: mortality rates by vitamin-mineral intervention group. Amer. J. Clin. Nutr. 62: 1424S-1426S. Bonelli, L., A. Camoriano, P. Ravelli, G. Missale, P. Bruzzi and H. Aste (1998) Reduction of the incidence of metachronous adenomas of the large bowel by means of antioxidants. In: Proceedings of International Selenium Tellurium Development Association, Y. Palmieri, Ed. Scottsdale, AZ, pp 91-94. . Brooks, J. D., B. E. J. Metter, D. W. Chan, L. J. Sokoll, P. Landis et al. (2001) Plasma selenium level before diagnosis and the risk of prostate cancer development. Journal Urology 166: 2034-2038. Brown, T. and A. Shrift (1981) Exclusion of selenium from proteins of selenium-tolerant Astragalus species. Plant Physiol. 67: 1051-1059. Burnell, J. N. and A. Shrift (1977) Cysteinyl-tRNA synthetase from Phaseolus aureus. Purification and properties. Plant Physiol. 60: 670-678. Burke, K. E., R. G. Burford, G. F. Combs, I. W. French and D. R. Skeffington (1992a) The effect of topical L-selenomethionine on minimal erythema dose of ultraviolet irradiation in humans. Photodermatol. Photoimmunol. Photomed 9: 52-57. Burke, K. E., G. F. Combs, E. G. Gross, K. C. Bhuyan and H. Abu-Libdeh ( 1992b) The effects of topical and oral L-selenomethionine on pigmentation and skin cancer induced by ultraviolet irradiation. Nutr. Cancer 17: 123-137. Cai X-J, E. Block, P. C. Uden, X. Zhang, B. D. Quimby and J. J. Sullivan (1995): Allium chemistry: Identification of selenoamino acids in ordinary and selenium-enriched garlic, onion and broccoli using gas chromatography with atomic emission detection. J. Agricul. Food Chem. 43:1754-1757. Chen, D. M., S. N. Nigam and W. B. McConnell (1970) Biosynthesis of Se-methylselenocysteine and S-methylcysteine in Astragalus bisulcatus. Can. J. Biochem. 48: 1278-1284. Clark, L., L. J. Hixson, G. F. Combs, Jr., M. E. Reid, B. W. Turnbull and R. E. Sampliner (1993) Plasma selenium concentration predicts the prevalence of colorectal adenomatous polyps. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 2: 41-46. Clark, L. C., G. F. Combs, B. W. Turnbull, E. Slate, D. Alberts et al. (1996) The nutritional prevention of cancer with selenium 1983-1993; a randomized clinical trial. J. Amer. Med Assoc. 276: 1957-1963. Clark, L.C., K. P. Cantor and W. H. Allaway (1981) Selenium in forage crops and cancer mortality in U. S. counties. Arch. Environ. Health 46: 37-42. Clark, L. C., B. Dalkin, A. Krongrad, G. F. Combs, B. W. Turnbull et al. (1998) Decreased incidence of prostate cancer with selenium supplementation: results of a double-blind cancer prevention trial. Brit. J. 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Hunter, D. J., J. S. Morris, M. J. Stampfer, G. A. Colditz, F. E. Speizer and W. C. Willet (1990) A prospective study of selenium status and breast cancer risk. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 264:1128-1131 Ip, C (1988) Differential effects of dietary methionine on the biopotency of selenomethionine and selenite in cancer chemoprevention. J. Nutl. Cancer Inst. 80: 258-262. Ip C, D. J. Lisk and G. S. Stoewsand (1992) Mammary cancer prevention by regular garlic and selenium-enriched garlic. Nutr. Cancer 17: 279-286. Ip, C. and D. Medina (1987) Current concepts of selenium and mammary tumorigenesis. In: Cellular and molecular biology of breast cancer, pp. 479-494, D. Medina, W. Kidwell, G. Heppner and E. P. Anderson. (eds) Plenum Press, New York. Ip, C., M. Birringer, E. Block, M. Kotrebai, J. F. Tyson, P. C. Uden and D. J. Lisk (2000a) Chemical speciation influences comparative activity of selenium-enriched garlic and yeast in mammary cancer prevention. J. Agric. Food Chem. 48: 2062-2070. Ip C, H. J. Thompson, Z. Zhu and H. E. Ganther (2000b) In vitro and in vivo studies of methylseleninic acid: evidence that a monomethylated selenium metabolite is critical for cancer chemoprevention. Cancer Res. 60: 2882-2886. Ip C, and H. E. Ganther. (1993) Novel strategies in selenium cancer chemoprevention research. In: Selenium in Biology and Human Health, R. F. Burk, ed., Springer-Verlag, New York, Chap. 9, pp 171-180. Ip C, H. Thompson and H. E. Ganther (1994a) Activity of triphenylselenonium chloride in mammary cancer prevention. Carcinogenesis 15: 2879-2882. Ip C, K. El-Bayoumy, P. Upadhyaya and H. E. Ganther, S. Vadhanavikit and H. Thompson (1994b) Comparative effect of inorganic and organic selenocyanate derivatives in mammary cancer chemoprevention. Carcinogenesis 15: 187-192. Ip C and D. J. Lisk (1994) Characterization of tissue selenium profiles and anticarcinogenic responses in rats fed natural sources of selenium-rich products. Carcinogenesis 15: 573-576. Ip C: Lessons from basic research in selenium and cancer prevention (1998) J. Nutr. 128: 1845-1854 Kabuto, M., H. Imai, C. Yonezawa, K. Nerishi, S. Akiba et al (1994) Prediagnostic serum selenium and zinc levels and subsequent risk of lung and stomach cancer in Japan. Cancer Epidem, Biomarkers & Prevention 1.3: 465-469. Klein, E. A., L. M. Thompson, S. M. Lippman, P. J. Goodman, D. Albanes et al (2001) SELECT: The next prostate cancer prevention trial. J Urology 166: 1311-1315. Kok, F. J., A. M. de Bruijn, A Hofman, R. Vermeeren and H. A. Valkenburg (1987) Is serum selenium a risk factor for cancer in men only? Am. J. Epidemiol. 125:12-16. Li, J. Y., P. R. Taylor, B. Li, S. Dawsey, G. Qa. Wang, A. G. Ershow, W. Guo et al. (1993) Nutrition intervention trials in Linxian, China. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 85: 1492-1498. Mansell, J. B. and M. J. Berry (2001) Towards a mechanism for selenocysteine incorporation in eukaryotes. In: Selenium, its molecular biology and role in human health, Hatfield, D. L., Ed. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, pp 69-81. Mark, S. D., Y-L Qiao, S. M. Dawsey, Y-P Wu, H. Katki et al (2000) Prospective study of serum selenium levels and incident of esophageal and gastric cancers. J. Nat. Cancer Institute 92: 1753-1763. Medina, D. and D. G. Morrison (1988) Current ideas on selenium as a chemopreventive agent. Pathol. Immunopathol. Res. 7:187-199. Milner, J. A. (1985) Effect of selenium on virally induced and transplanted tumor models. Fed. Proc. 44: 2568-2572. Mitchell, A. D. and N. J. Benevenga (1978) The role of transamination in methionine oxidation in the rat. J. Nutr. 108: 67-78. Navarrete, M., A. Gaudry, G. Revel, T. Martinez and L. Cabrera (2001) Urinary selenium excretion in patients with cervical uterine cancer. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 79: 97-105. Neuhierl, B., M. Thanbichler, F. Lottspeich and A. 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Krishnaswamy (1995) Micronuclei and carcinogen DNA adducts as intermediate end points in nutrient intervention trial of precancerous lesions in the oral cavity. Eur. J. Cancer B Oral Oncol. 31B: 155-159. Rao, L., B. Puschner and T. A. Prolla (2001) Gene expression profiling of low selenium status in the mouse intestine: Transcriptional activation of genes linked to DNA damage, cell cycle control and oxidative stress. J. Nutr. 131: 3175-3181. Rayman, M. P. (2000) The importance of selenium in human health. Lancet 356: 233-241. Rogers, M. A., D. B.Thomas, S. Davis, N.S.Weiss, T. L. Vaughan, and A. L. Nevissi (1991) A case-control study of oral cancer and pre-diagnostic concentrations of selenium and zinc in nail tissue. Int. J. Cancer Res. 48:182-188. Russo, M. W., S. C. Murray, J. I. Wurzelmann, J. T. Woosley and R. S. Sandler (1997) Plasma selenium and the risk of colorectal adenomas. Nutr. Cancer 28: 125-129. Salonen, J. T., G. Alfthan, J. K. Huttunen, and P. 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[1][1] These results are consistent with some animal data. Hairless mice treated by topical application of selenomethionine (0.02%) or given drinking water with 1.5 micrograms selenium per ml as selenomethionine had significantly less skin damage due to ultraviolet irradiation (Burke et al, 1992b). This is consistent with an earlier study which indicated that dietary selenium (one microgram/g) fed to mice significantly reduced the number of skin tumors induced by two carcinogenic chemicals plus croton oil (Shamberger, 1970). [2][2] The incidence of breast cancer is greatest of all cancers in women but it is the third highest cause of all cancer deaths (American Cancer Society, 2000), probably reflecting the improved methods for detecting and treatment of breast cancer compared to other cancers . Although usually not mentioned, a small number of men develop breast cancer with even some deaths. About 400 men die of breast cancer each year compared to 43,300 breast cancer deaths in women. [3][3] The author is aware of a person who consumed one mg of selenium for two years before toxic signs of selenium occurred. Thus this element appears not as toxic as often believed.
Minerals are essential to life itself! 
 To Part 4 of Selenium Study
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Doctor Joel Wallach and his Pig Pack Formula can be for those that are one of the 20 million Americans who has listened to Doctor Wallachs "Dead Doctors Don't Lie! - the audio tape by Dr. Joel Wallach, BS, DVM, ND, The Mineral Doctor? Doctor Wallach has advocated that this formula may comfort those with artthritis pain and associated joint problems. Pig Pack Formula from Youngevityy has made ordering the products for the Pig Pack Formula much easier. You can buy all those products at one time. Included in the pig pack is 2 Majestic Earth Minerals #13203, 2 Majestic Earth Ultimate Tangy Tangerine #13221, 1 Ultimate Gluco Gel #21251 and 1 Ultimate E.F.A. #20641 . Look also at our Liquid Gluco Gel with MSM, Glucosame Sulfate, Chondroitin Sulfate, Cetylmyristoleate, and Collagen Hydrolysate. Check out Liquid Osteo fx an easy way to get your 1200mg of Daily Calcium with MSM and Glucosame Sulfate.
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